3. Phrases of Speech
phrases of speech are essentially what we call different types of words, or "the vocabulary of words."
Antecedent¶
An antecedent is the noun a pronoun is referencing. Mark wanted to prove he could do it alone.
The antecedent should be mentioned before the pronoun used to replace it to avoid ambiguity.
NO: He wanted to prove he could do it alone. (who is "he" in this sentence?) YES: Mark wanted to prove he could do it alone. (now we know "he" refers to "Mark" in this sentence)
Contractions¶
A contraction is a word that shortens a word or two-word phrase by omitting certain letters and usually uses an apostrophe in place of those omitted letters (see also).
don't, I'm, they're
Conjunctions¶
linking words, phrases, and structures that link other words, phrases, or parts of a sentence together. Conjunctions come in three categories (see also): - coordinating - correlative - subordinate
| Type of Conjunction | Description |
|---|---|
| Coordinating Conjunctions | These conjunctions show how one item coordinates with another item. I like apples, but not bananas. for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so |
| Correlative Conjunctions | These conjunctions show how one item correlates to another item. I like both bananas and apples. both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or |
| Subordinating Conjunctions | These conjunctions show an item that is subordinate to another item. I like apples only if I have a banana first. after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because, before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, in the event that, lest, now that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so, supposing, that, than, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether or not, while |
Direct Objects¶
The object in a sentence that is being referred to or acted upon directly, usually a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase. Meanwhile, prepositional phrases, adjectives, and adverbs are NOT direct objects.
Slang, Jargon, Idioms¶
Slang is trending language. Jargon is language used within a specific field, or "work slang." Idioms are a fancy word for an expression or phrase of speech, a group of words that take on a specific meaning when they are together.
Modifiers¶
This is what you call words or phrases that "modify" another word in the sentence. A modifier is a word or phrase that changes, clarifies, qualifies, limits, or describes another word in a sentence. Modifiers tend to be adverbs and adjectives or adverbial phrases and adjective clauses (see also).
Misplaced Modifiers¶
Modifiers should always be as close to the thing they modify as possible to avoid ambiguity. Modifiers that aren't close enough to what they modify are called "misplaced" modifiers.
NO: They bought a car for my sister they call Pumpkin. YES: They bought a car they call Pumpkin for my sister.
(The car is called Pumpkin, but in the first sentence, since this modifying phrase is so far from the word "car" it's unclear if "Pumpkin" is maybe what the sister is called.)
Limiting Modifiers¶
This type of modifier puts restrictions on something in the sentence.
Only Jessica wants pizza. Jessica only wants pizza.
Prepositions¶
prepositions are connector words.
at / by / down / for / from / in / into / like / near / of / off / on / onto / over / past / to / upon / with
Participles¶
When a verb is used as an adjective or used in a "to be" phrase, it's called a PARTICIPLE.
Present Participles end in -ING I saved the starving dog.
Past Participles end in -ED I saved the starved dog.
Verbs¶
an action word. There are 5 different types of verbs and 5 more descriptors for verbs. Verbs can have both a type and a descriptor (see also).
There are 5 different types of verbs: - dynamic/action verbs - stative verbs - linking verbs - lexical verbs - auxiliary/helping verbs - modal verbs - phrasal verbs
There are 5 different descriptors for verbs: - transitive verbs - intransitive verbs - regular verbs - irregular verbs - infinitives\
| Types of Verbs | Description |
|---|---|
| Dynamic/Action Verbs | most common verb, refers to a physical action. run, jump, swim |
| Stative Verbs | refers to a state of being feel, want, have Linking Verbs: a kind of stative verb that links a subject with a subject complement. That watch is expensive. ("is" is a linking verb connecting "watch" with its complement "expensive.") |
| Lexical Verbs | the main or principal verb in a sentence or verb phrase. My cat is getting slow in her old age. |
| Auxiliary/Helping Verbs | subordinate or supporting verbs that help the main or full verb. My cat is getting slow in her old age. My cat was getting slow in her old age. ("is" or "was" is the auxiliary verb because it can change the meaning of the main/lexical verb "getting") Modal Verbs: a kind of auxiliary verb that shows mood, ability, necessity, possibility, or permission. I would go out tonight if I wasn't so busy. I could go out tonight if I wasn't so busy. ("would" or "could" is the modal auxiliary verb because it can change the meaning of the main/lexical verb "go") |
| Phrasal Verbs | verb phrases that give two words their own meaning when used together. The store was closed down. |
| Descriptors for Verbs | Description |
|---|---|
| Transitive Verbs | a verb that has a direct object. Leo ate a pizza. |
| Intransitive Verbs | a verb that does not have a direct object. The startled birds flew away. |
| Regular Verbs | verbs that have regular verb forms and endings, meaning the past tense and past participle forms of the verb ends in -ed, -d, -t. jumped, slipped, slept |
| Irregular Verbs | verbs that do not follow regular verb forms and endings, meaning the past tense and past participle forms of the verb do not end in -ed, -d, -t ate, eaten, flew, flown |
| Infinitives | the base form of any verb to play, to be, to see |
Capitalization¶
Capitalize all proper nouns. names, holidays, religions, organizations, countries, languages, days of the week, months, races, ethnicities, nationalities
Capitalization can also be used for emphasis, especially in ad copy or designs. Otherwise, use capitalization for emphasis sparingly.
Tip: if you're not sure if a noun is in an instance where it should be capitalized or not, you can sometimes know it needs to be capitalized if you can put "the" in front of it or if it is talking about "the" thing and not just any version of that thing.
For example, if you're referring to THE Army of the US, then capitalize the word Army, but if you are just talking about armies in general, then lowercase it.
Titles and Offices¶
Titles and offices are capitalized when they precede a proper noun (someone's name) and not when they are used alone.
Before you can post online you need permission from President Jane.
You can ask the president for permission.
Titles and Headings¶
Most words in a title should be capitalized. Connecting words (prepositions and conjunctions) are not capitalized in a title unless they are the first word:
at / by / down / for / from / in / into / like / near / of / off / on / onto / over / past / to / upon / with / and / as / but / for / if / nor / once / or / so / than / that / till / when / yet
Capitalize both words in hyphenated compounds within a title or heading.
NO: Make Exercise a Life-long Habit YES: Make Exercise a Life-Long Habit
Lowercase both letters in the abbreviation for versus (vs) in titles and headings. The abbreviation vs also doesn't need any periods.
NO: Baseball Vs. Soccer YES: Baseball vs Soccer